Scope
Coastal and marine environments including estuaries, inshore coastal and offshore areas within New Zealand's territory and other jurisdiction (including the Exclusive Economic Zone) and the resident and migratory marine species (plants, benthic organisms, fish, marine mammals, birds and other organisms) inhabiting these areas. 

Desired outcome for 2020
New Zealand's natural marine habitats and ecosystems are maintained in a healthy functioning state. Degraded marine habitats are recovering. A full range of marine habitats and ecosystems representative of New Zealand's indigenous marine biodiversity is protected.

No human-induced extinctions of marine species within New Zealand's marine environment have occured. Rare or threatened marine species are adequately protected from harvesting and other human threats, enabling them to recover. 

Marine biodiversity is appreciated, and any harvesting or marine development is done in an informed, controlled and ecologically sustainable manner²⁶. 

No new undesirable introduced species are established, and threats to indigenous biodiversity from established exotic organisms are being reduced and controlled.

New Zealand's coastal and marine ecosystems and species are highly diverse. This is due to a combination of factors - our geological history and isolation, the range and complexity of habitats, and the influence of some major ocean currents. The result is a wide variety, but patchy distribution, of coastal and marine plants and animals. 

Click to View Larger

About 8000 marine species have been described in New Zealand waters, including 61 seabirds, 41 marine mammals, 964 fish (of which 108 are endemic), 2000 molluscs (snails, shellfish and squid), 350 sponges, 400 echinoderms (kina, starfish and so on), 900 species of seaweeds and 700 species of micro-algae. These make up almost one-third of New Zealand's total number of described indigenous species.

However, there are many more to be discovered, with seven new species being identified on average each fortnight. Marine scientists estimate that perhaps as much as 80 percent of New Zealand's indigenous biodiversity is found in the sea. While many of our marine fish are found in other countries' seas, many of our benthic (bottom dwelling) marine species are endemic to New Zealand. 

New Zealand is visited by a number of migratory species, and provides habitat that is critical to the long-term viability of some of these species, particularly for marine birds that breed in New Zealand. 

Evaluating the state of New Zealand's marine and coastal biodiversity is difficult due to our very limited information. 

Although our coastal waters and habitats are generally of high quality by international standards, they are under stress in some areas, particularly estuaries near towns and cities and the mouths of large rivers. Some 390 million tonnes of sediment are washed from the mainland into the sea each year, contributing to the decline of some estuarine and inshore habitats. Point source discharges and contaminated runoff also have impacts. Many estuarine ecosystems have been lost or damaged through land reclamation, encroachment from land development, and other human activities. 

Estuarine and other coastal ecosystems are also threatened by the invasion of exotic species such as the Asian date mussel and Undaria seaweed. These species are spread by vessels transporting ballast water, hull encrustations, and marine farming equipment from one marine area to another. 

Many coastal fish stocks were heavily reduced between 1965 and 1985 following deregulation of the industry. Since the introduction of the fisheries Quota Management System (QMS), most QMS stocks for which biomass and productivity data are known are thought to be above sustainable levels. However, for over half of the stocks managed under the QMS, too little is known to be able to assess whether harvesting levels are sustainable. It is known that for several species (including snapper and orange roughy) some stocks have been depleted below levels judged to produce maximum sustainable yields.

With hunting of marine mammals banned in New Zealand waters since 1978, most whale and dolphin species are recovering or at least holding their own. Fur seal and sea lion numbers appear to be recovering, although their populations are a fraction of their original size. Fisheries by-catch (capture of non-target species) remains a problem for some species, such as Hector's dolphin, New Zealand sea lion, and albatross, although programmes are underway to protect these species.

Shellfish and some other marine invertebrates remain vulnerable to overharvest and to habitat degradation, caused by sediment from rivers, pollution, changes in sea temperatures and fishing activities such as the dragging of heavy nets along the sea floor. 

Many of our marine species spend part of their lives in international waters, particularly in the southern ocean, so the state of these areas is of importance to New Zealand's marine biodiversity. New Zealand also has interests in resources in international waters, for example in the marine area around New Zealand's Antarctic territory - the Ross Dependency. 

Local authorities manage land use impacts and discharges, which also impact on marine ecosystems and biodiversity. Discharges from shipping are managed by regulations under the RMA inside the territorial sea and through rules administered by the Maritime Safety Authority outside territorial waters. Mining is subject to the Crown Minerals Act 1991 in both the territorial waters and the larger EEZ. Within territorial waters, regional councils are responsible for managing the environmental effects of mining and other activities under regional coastal plans and the New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement. 

Management of the marine environment over the last century has largely focused on sustaining fisheries for use, rather than protecting marine biodiversity for its own sake. This differs from our approach on land where there has been a greater emphasis on protecting species and their habitats (see Theme One). Only a limited number of species are protected under law - our marine mammals (protected under the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978), most seabirds and a small number of other species (spotted black groper, marine reptiles, black and red corals)(protected under the Wildlife Act 1953). Approximately 4 percent²⁹ of the territorial sea is protected in marine reserves that are established for scientific purposes under the Marine Reserves Act 1971. 

In response to increasing global pressure on marine resources, international management regimes are being developed. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was signed in 1982 and provides a standard international regime for ocean spaces including the territorial sea, the EEZ (which had previously been a global common), and the continental shelf. UNCLOS provides for a sustained yield fisheries regime, as well as the protection of the marine environment. New Zealand has until 2006 to delineate the outer limit of the continental shelf and define our jurisdiction over seabed resources in this area. 

Further agreements have added to New Zealand's marine responsibilities. New Zealand has recently signed the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement, which provides a framework for managing fish stocks that are migratory or extend beyond the EEZ. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (Bonn Convention) will also provide mechanisms for New Zealand's involvement in managing biodiversity beyond our territorial limits. 

New Zealand is also party to treaties covering the protection of the Antarctic and its marine living resources. Legislation implementing these treaties is administered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 

Summary of issues

Information and awareness of marine biodiversity 
Our current knowledge of marine life and how marine ecosystems work is not adequate to show whether we are sustainably managing New Zealand's marine biodiversity. People have perceived the ocean to be uniform and limitless in its capacity to provide food and absorb waste. In general, New Zealanders do not appreciate the great levels of diversity found in marine ecosystems and the threats to this diversity. 

• Many marine species remain undescribed and information on the distribution and lifecycle of others remains sparse. 
• We have not yet identified and classified New Zealand's marine habitats, the communities of marine life within them, the processes that drive marine ecosystems, or the full extent of threats to marine biodiversity from human activities and broader environmental changes. 
• The inter-relationships and dependencies between fishing activities, fisheries stocks and other components of marine biodiversity (that is, an ecosystem-based approach) are inadequately addressed in research and management actions. Some non-target species are being adversely affected by fishing, and others may be at risk. 
• Current levels of information are inadequate to determine whether or not harvesting levels are sustainable for over half the fish stocks managed under the QMS. As harvesting pressure on some of these stocks increases, additional information is vital to avoid the risk of these stocks collapsing. 
• We do not fully understand the scale of land use impacts, including sedimentation and pollution, on marine biodiversity. 
• We currently do not have the information needed to anticipate the nature and intensity of ecological changes that might be induced by climate change.

• Some responsibilities for managing marine biodiversity are not clearly understood, resulting in a lack of accountability for actions and outcomes. There is a need to clarify the respective roles of regional councils, Department of Conservation, Ministry of Fisheries, Ministry for the Environment, the Maritime Safety Authority, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Commerce, the fishing industry and other interest groups in managing marine biodiversity. 
• Beyond the territorial sea there is incomplete coverage of management issues, a lack of coordination of agency responsibilities, and the potential for practices to be inconsistent with those within the 12 mile limit. 
• Land use activities (such as nutrient enrichment and pollution from sewage, sedimentation from land runoff, and coastal development) and aquaculture activities can adversely affect habitats important to both fishery stocks and marine ecosystems, and they need to be managed accordingly. 
• The management of the coastal and marine environment and of impacts on that environment needs to be integrated within an ecosystem-based framework with explicit biodiversity objectives.

• Land uses, such as agriculture and forestry, adversely affect the coastal environment through runoff containing eroded soils, nutrients and contaminants; and coastal land development has a major impact on some coastal ecosystems. 
• The discharge of wastes from industry and households, including sewage and pollutants in urban stormwater, has an adverse impact on marine and estuarine water quality and also marine biodiversity, although the extent of this is not known. 
• Some marine habitats, including seamount communities, and coral, bryozoan, sponge and other benthic communities, are being adversely affected by mechanical activities such as trawling, dredging, dumping and the extraction of oil, gas and minerals. 

• Commercial fishing, although managed through the QMS, has depleted stocks of some target species (for example, snapper, orange roughy and rock lobster) to below levels judged desirable by fisheries scientists and managers. Management should focus on rebuilding depleted stocks and avoiding, remedying or mitigating any negative effects of fishing on ecosystems. 
• Commercial fishing impacts include: the capture (by-catch) of non-target species, such as fish, marine mammals (dolphins, sea lions and fur seals), marine invertebrates and seabirds; genetic changes in response to fishing; effects on predator/prey relationships and damage to benthic communities. 
• Harvesting pressure in coastal environments from recreational and customary fishing has a significant impact on shellfish and inshore finfish stocks in some areas, and information needs, monitoring and management options for these need to be investigated further. 
• The effects of pollution, particularly persistent organic pollutants, and sediments on species and ecosystems are unknown. 

Marine biosecurity 
New Zealand's coastal and marine environment is vulnerable to the establishment and spread of introduced marine pest species and diseases. 

• New marine organisms may arrive, and be transferred around New Zealand waters, in ballast water (used to stabilise ships) or attached to the hulls of visiting ships and fishing and recreational vessels. 
• Responsibility for surveillance of the marine environment and emergency response to the entry of new exotic species rests with Mfish. However, responsibilities for managing pests already in New Zealand waters need to be further defined (see Theme Five). 
• Mechanisms are needed to control the introduction and spread, within New Zealand waters, of new species, pathogens and toxic organisms that are potentially harmful to marine species and ecosystems. 
• Aquaculture poses some risks for marine biosecurity through the transfer of organisms into or around New Zealand waters on spat or equipment, escapes from containment, and the possible introduction of pathogens with imported stock. 

• Under the Marine Reserves Act 1971, marine reserves can only be created within territorial waters, but not beyond, resulting in limited protection mechanisms for marine ecosystems outside the 12 mile limit, within the EEZ and areas under New Zealand's jurisdiction. 
• The purpose of marine reserves created under the Marine Reserves Act is to preserve a variety of marine habitats for scientific study, but not specifically to meet biodiversity conservation objectives, the achievement of which are incidental to this purpose. 
• Outside of marine reserves, measures to protect coastal and marine ecosystems are contained in the RMA (which deals with matters other than fisheries management and excludes the control of fisheries and many fishing impacts)³¹ and the Fisheries Act 1996 (which deals with fishing and fishing impacts). However, improved integration and implementation of these measures are required. 
• There is a range of measures under the Fisheries Act which can be used to provide protection for fisheries purposes. These include area closures, seasonal area closures, restrictions on certain fishing techniques, partial closures to certain commercial fishing, taiapure and mataitai. 
• New Zealand has a role in protecting areas outside the EEZ, particularly the Antarctic. 

Objective 3.1 Improving our knowledge of coastal and marine ecosystems 

Substantially increase our knowledge of coastal and marine ecosystems and the effects of human activities on them. 

Key players: FRST*, MoRST, Mfish, DoC, RCs, NIWA, research providers, museums, iwi/hapu33 

b) Survey, assess, and map habitats and ecosystems important for indigenous biodiversity and develop an agreed bioregional classification system³⁴. 

Key players: MfE*, DoC*, LINZ, Mfish, NIWA, MSA, RCs, museums, fishing industry, iwi/hapu

c) Identify the uniqueness, representativeness, and importance of the biodiversity of New Zealand's coastal and marine ecosystems. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish*, MfE, NIWA, RCs, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

d) Identify, assess, map and rank the threats to New Zealand's coastal and marine biodiversity. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish*, MfE*, MSA, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

e) Develop an environmental monitoring system to provide information and a spatial understanding of: the status of marine species; fish stocks; habitats important for indigenous biodiversity; marine environmental health; threats to biodiversity; and the effectiveness of measures to avoid, remedy or mitigate the adverse effects of activities on marine biodiversity. Ensure that this information is readily accessible to all interested groups.

Key players: MfE*, Mfish*, DoC, RCs, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

f) Promote individual and community awareness of the effects of activities on marine biodiversity, and the opportunities and responsibilities to protect and maintain habitats and ecosystems of importance to biodiversity.

Key players: Mfish*, DoC*, RCs, resource users, training institutes, iwi/hapu 

Develop processes for a marine management that enable decision makers to consider whole marine ecosystems.

Key players: DPMC*, MfE, MFAT, Mfish, DoC, LAs, LINZ 

b) Advocate for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas subject to international jurisdiction, including the Ross Dependency and other Antarctic areas. 

Key players: MfE*, Mfish, MFAT, MOT, DoC, DPMC 

Protect biodiversity in coastal waters from the adverse effects of human activities on land and in the coastal zone. 

Key players: DoC*, MfE, LAs, iwi/hapu, community groups 

b) Expand programmes to mitigate the adverse effects of land use on coastal biodiversity, and incorporate marine biodiversity priorities into programmes for sustainable land use, including the Sustainable Land Management Strategy, National Agenda for Sustainable Water Management (NASWM), and related strategies.

Key players: MfE*, MAF, DoC, LAs, iwi/hapu, resource users 

c) Maintain or restore the biodiversity of priority sites in the coastal environment. 

Key players: DoC*, MfE, LAs, resource users, iwi/hapu, community groups, NGOs 

Protect biodiversity in coastal and marine waters from the adverse effects of fishing and other coastal and marine resource uses. 

Key players: Mfish*, MfE, DoC, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

b) Identify the coastal and marine species and habitats most sensitive to harvesting and other disturbances and put in place measures to avoid, remedy or mitigate adverse effects from commercial, recreational and Maori customary fishing activities. 

Key players: Mfish*, DoC, RCs, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, research providers, NGOs 

c) In the absence of, or uncertainty about, information required for the sustainable use of marine resources, apply the precautionary principle³⁷ when setting sustainability measures for fishing or setting controls for other coastal and marine uses³⁸. 

Key players: Mfish*, RCs, resource users, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

d) Improve the environmental impact assessment (EIA) of fishing and other marine and coastal resource use, and integrate these EIA into fisheries decision making processes (including sustainability measures and fisheries plans) and other marine management processes. 

Key players: Mfish*, RCs, fishing industry, coastal resource users, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

e) Avoid, remedy or mitigate the adverse impacts of human activities (such as marine transport and mining) on marine biodiversity and develop habitat restoration programmes where appropriate. 

Key players: DoC*, MSA*, RCs, research providers, coastal resource users, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

Develop an integrated system to identify biosecurity risks to marine biodiversity from exotic organisms and establish appropriate management responses to prevent and reduce these risks and to minimise their impacts.

Key players: Mfish*, MAF, DoC, MfE, Biosecurity Council, RCs, fishing and marine industry, iwi/ hapu 

b) Determine responsibilities for the management of established marine pests so that appropriate measures (including preparing and implementing pest management strategies under the Biosecurity Act 1996) can be undertaken promptly and efficiently. 

Key players: Mfish*, DoC, RCs, MAF 

c) Identify the distribution of exotic species and assess the actual and potential impacts of these on marine ecosystems and biodiversity. 

Key players: Mfish*, DoC, RCs, NIWA 

d) Increase pest control and management efforts to levels congruent with national biodiversity goals and develop new technologies and techniques to combat existing and emergent threats to marine biodiversity from marine pests. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish*, RCs, fishing and aquaculture industry, iwi/hapu, boat users 

Protect a full range of natural marine habitats and ecosystems to effectively conserve marine biodiversity, using a range of appropriate mechanisms, including legal protection. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish*, TPK, RCs, iwi/hapu, fishing industry, NGOs 

b) Achieve a target of protecting 10 percent of New Zealand's marine environment by 2010 in view of establishing a network of representative protected marine areas. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish, TPK, RCs, iwi/hapu, fishing industry, NGOs 

c) Review the Marine Reserves Act 1971 to better provide for the protection of marine biodiversity, including extending its jurisdiction to protect marine biodiversity within and beyond the 12 mile limit. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish, MFAT, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

d) Promote and encourage individual and community initiatives to protect, maintain and restore habitats and ecosystems that are important for marine biodiversity.

Key players: DoC*, MfE, RCs, Mfish, iwi/hapu, fishing industry, coastal resource users, NGOs 

Protect and enhance populations of marine and coastal species threatened with extinction, and prevent additional species and ecological communities from becoming threatened. 

Actions: 
(a) Review the threatened species priority setting systems and extend them to assess coastal and marine species. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish, RCs, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

(b) Identify and protect threatened species and their key habitats. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish, RCs, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

(c) Implement recovery plans and population management plans for those threatened marine species ranked as high priority. 

Key players: DoC*, Mfish, LAs, fishing industry, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

(d) Accede to the Convention on Migratory Species (the Bonn Convention) to provide an international framework for New Zealand's participation in protecting migratory and widely ranging species such as albatross.

Key players: DoC*, MFAT, NGOs 
 

*Government lead

²⁶ The Fisheries Act 1996 requires that any adverse effects of fishing on the aquatic environment be avoided, remedied or mitigated, and the biological diversity of the aquatic environment be maintained.

²⁸ Section 30(2) of the RMA excludes the control of harvesting or enhancement of fisheries from regional council functions, where the purpose of the control is to conserve, enhance, protect, allocate or manage any fishery. 

²⁹ The 735 000 hectare marine reserve around the Kermadec Islands is much larger than any other marine reserve in New Zealand to date. If excluded this percentage is reduced to about 0.1 percent. 

³⁰ The Fisheries Act 1996 Amendment Act 1999 allows for some approved by-catch species to be fished to a level below the maximum sustainable yield level, but only where the long-term viability of the fish stock is not impaired. 

³¹ See footnote 28.

³² Actions shown in bold are priority actions (see Part Four). 

³³ See key to key players. 

³⁴ Bioregional classification is based on a combination of biological, geographical and social or management criteria.

³⁵ This action addresses a range of marine environment management issues of which biodiversity is only one component. 

³⁶ There is also a need for the New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement to be consistent with any future national policy statement on biodiversity (see Actions 1.1d and 2.1g). 

³⁷ See Principle 12 in Part Two. 38 This requirement is included in section 10 of the Fisheries Act 1996.