Desired outcome for 2020
A net gain has been made in the extent and condition of natural habitats and ecosystems important for indigenous biodiversity. Scarce and fragmented habitats (such as lowland forests and grasslands, wetlands and dunelands) have increased in area and are in better ecological health due to improved connections and the sustainable management of surrounding areas. Some modified habitats are restored.

A more representative range of natural habitats and ecosystems is secure in public ownership, complemented by an increase in privately owned and managed protected natural areas. Increased and more effective pest management, coupled with species recovery, has restored ecological processes in these areas. No new pest species have become established.

No further human-induced extinctions have occurred. Populations of all indigenous species and subspecies are sustained in natural or semi-natural habitats, and their genetic diversity is maintained. Fewer threatened species require active recovery programmes and ex situ management.

Threats to indigenous biodiversity from the activities of people are avoided or mitigated through sustainable use regimes and the sustainable management of production landscapes and urban areas.

State of biodiversity on land
New Zealand's transition over the past millennium, from an unpeopled and isolated archipelago to a productive agricultural economy, has transformed natural landscapes, habitats, ecosystems, and the composition of our land-based biota. At least three-quarters of New Zealand's original natural areas on land have been significantly disturbed by the activities of people and their accompanying plants and animals; 63 percent of this area has been converted to farms, roads and settlements. In contrast, the extent of habitat loss on land worldwide stands at just over 50 percent. 

Most of New Zealand's remaining unmodified habitat is either in remote mountainous areas, on offshore islands, in small lowland forest stands, or in other fragmented patches in lowland and coastal areas. Much of this habitat in the mountains and on islands is protected within extensive public conservation areas. However, other scarce habitats (such as lowland and coastal forest remnants, lowland grasslands, wetlands and dunelands) remain largely unprotected and vulnerable to ongoing decline. Some biological communities (for example, certain blue-grass communities and lowland native grasslands) may be close to extinction. 

About 20 000 indigenous terrestrial species have been described in New Zealand so far. These include: 700 protozoans; 3080 plants; 5800 fungi; 10 000 insects; 2600 arachnids (spiders and mites); 200 myriapods (millipedes and centipedes); 500 snails and slugs; 1000 worms (nematodes, earthworms and flatworms); four frogs; 61 reptiles; 88 birds (land and freshwater); and two bats. It is estimated that the true number may be closer to 70 000 species. 

Small, spineless or subterranean, our most diverse groups of indigenous species on land (fungi, insects and worms) are the least known and appreciated. Fungi, for example (estimated at around 20 000 species) play a vital role in ecosystems in breaking down and recycling nutrients. 

New Zealand has lost a significant proportion of its large native land animals. As far as we know, in fewer than 1000 years human-induced extinctions include: 

• 32 percent of endemic land and freshwater birds;
• three of seven frogs; 
• one of three bats; 
• three of 64 reptiles; 
• 11 of the 2300 known vascular plants; and 
• at least 12 invertebrates such as snails and insects.¹⁷ 

The populations of most surviving native species have been heavily reduced, with many no longer occurring across their natural distributional range. Around 1000 native species (that we know about) are considered threatened. Most of these live on land and terrestrial species constitute around 90 percent of the 400 plants and animals ranked as being most at risk. 

The key threats to indigenous species on land are insufficient and fragmented habitat and introduced invasive species (animal pests and weeds), which prey on native species, compete with them, or damage their habitat and important ecosystem processes. 

Invasive pests and weeds pose the greatest single threat to biodiversity on land, surpassing even habitat loss. Browsing and grazing animals, such as goats, deer, thar, pigs, cattle, sheep, wallabies, rabbits and, above all, possums, eat our native plants. Introduced predators, such as stoats, ferrets, rats and cats, prey on birds, reptiles, frogs and the larger invertebrates. Many introduced species such as wasps compete with indigenous species, disrupting ecological processes and energy flows. Without sustained pest control, much of New Zealand's protected forests would suffer significant biodiversity losses from browsing animals. 

An increasing number of introduced plants are establishing themselves in the wild. New Zealand now has more introduced conifers and flowering plants in the wild than native plant species (see Figure 1.2). At least 240 of these introduced plants have the potential to displace native plants, and this number is growing each year. Weed invasions threaten the long-term viability of many of New Zealand's natural habitats, particularly lowland and coastal plant communities already fragmented through land development. 

Current management 
New Zealand's response to the decline of indigenous biodiversity on land is managed through a comprehensive conservation and resource management framework. It involves national, regional and local government agencies, as well as iwi and hapu, numerous community and environmental groups, landowners and resource users. Key government agencies include the Department of Conservation (DoC), responsible for managing public conservation lands, and regional and city and district councils, jointly responsible for the sustainable management of other land areas. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has a role in regulating sustainable indigenous forest management.

Biodiversity management efforts are targeted at both habitat and species levels, and include: 

• identifying and protecting remaining habitats important for indigenous biodiversity;
• restoring scarce or degraded habitats and ecosystems; 
• managing threats from pests and the effects of human activities; and 
• managing the recovery of threatened native species. 

A tendency to separate the management of species from their habitats is recognised as a problem that is starting to be addressed through a stronger ecosystem focus in management programmes. 

Habitats protected within public conservation lands comprise about eight million hectares, most of which are in mountainous areas; lowland forests make up only 16 percent of the protected forests within these areas, despite accounting for about 50 percent of New Zealand's original forest area. Under-represented habitats are being identified through the Protected Natural Areas Programme (PNAP) administered by DoC. The aim of this programme is to protect examples of the full range of ecosystems and landscape features of New Zealand, to help maintain the distinctive natural character of the country. The Crown also protects areas that are internationally or nationally outstanding, distinctive or rare, and these areas may be beyond what is purely representative. Local authorities are also undertaking indigenous habitat inventory work as part of their resource management functions. 

Although New Zealand has extensive areas that are formally protected, 70 percent of our land is in private ownership. Most of the remnant natural areas on private land are there by the conscious choice of landowners and their forebears. Sustaining biodiversity on private land requires the active assistance of willing landowners. Many landowners want to contribute, but want to be sure that their efforts are part of a coherent larger programme; they are also looking for partnerships based on mutual respect of their rights and responsibilities along with those of management agencies and other interest groups. 

Habitats are being protected on private land through government and private-funded covenants and other mechanisms (such as reserve, protected private land and resource consent provisions). Individual landowners are also choosing to fence off and maintain remnant areas of bush, riparian margins and wetlands on their land using their own resources. 

Summary of issues 

Protecting ecosystems and habitats 
Many distinctive natural habitats and ecosystems are under-represented in New Zealand's protected area network¹⁸, including lowland and coastal forest remnants, dunelands, natural shrublands, wetlands, and lowland tussocklands. Many of these habitats are scarce, located on private land and vulnerable to further loss. 

• There is a need for the consistent identification of significant remnant natural habitats through enhanced survey and assessment programmes and coordinated databases, to determine relative biodiversity value and therefore national and local protection priorities. 
• Resource Management Act (RMA) provisions to promote the protection of significant indigenous vegetation and habitats have not been effectively implemented across New Zealand. This is due to: difficulties in defining the meaning of "significant"; the lack of clarity over values to be protected; uncertainty over the right mix of rules and non-regulatory methods; ineffective consultation with landowners; resourcing problems in local authorities; and unresolved issues relating to private property rights, community benefit and cost sharing. 
• Regulation alone is not a preferred option to protect remnant natural areas on private land. Many landowners actively manage remnant habitats now and want to be acknowledged for, and assisted in, what they are doing. Landowners generally don't react positively to being told what to do on their land, therefore regulation is likely to be counterproductive and also risks losing many private "conservators" across the country. Nor is it possible to monitor and enforce a regulation-based regime on the scale that would be necessary. Securing the willing and active participation of landowners is therefore pivotal to sustaining indigenous biodiversity on private land.
• The use of incentives to facilitate voluntary protection of indigenous biodiversity on private land has not been fully explored or tapped, despite the significant progress made through the Nature Heritage Fund, Nga Whenua Rahui, the Queen Elizabeth II (QEII) Trust, and regional initiatives such as the Taranaki Tree Trust. 
• Existing funding cannot meet current demands on the Nature Heritage Fund, Nga Whenua Rahui and QEII Trust, nor provide assistance for ongoing pest management to maintain biodiversity values in areas protected through these mechanisms. 
• Unsustainable logging of indigenous forests on Crown-managed land may be inconsistent with goals to conserve and sustainably use indigenous biodiversity. 

• There is a need for greater recognition and action to restore fragmented, degraded or scarce natural habitat, halt declining ecological condition, restore essential ecosystem functions, and extend the area of particular habitat types. 
• Restoration initiatives on both public and private land are currently constrained by gaps in knowledge about ecological processes and restoration techniques (for example, the use of corridors), a lack of incentives, and the shortage of information, practical guidelines, expertise and resources. 
• There is a need for greater recognition of the opportunities to maintain, restore and reconnect fragmented, degraded or scarce habitats for indigenous species through the sympathetic management of production land and urban areas.

• Current pest management efforts on public conservation lands are insufficient to maintain indigenous biodiversity; limited resources mean pest control is restricted to priority areas and, in most cases, limited to "holding the line" until new techniques for pest control can be developed. 
• Threats from plant and animal pests to indigenous biodiversity on private land are not yet comprehensively or consistently addressed. Problems include: a lack of management focus under the Biosecurity Act (see Theme Five); poor coordination between agencies; limited resources among landowners for pest control; and limits of national funds (for example, the Nature Heritage Fund) to cover pest control in private protected areas. 
• The increase and spread of naturalised introduced plants that have or may become invasive weeds, represent a latent, and potentially serious, threat to indigenous biodiversity. 
• Gaps in our knowledge of pest species, inadequate pest control methods and technologies, and shortage of resources limit the effectiveness of pest management. 
• Public and community awareness of the threats posed by pests and support for pest prevention and control methods (such as the use of 1080 poison and biotechnology) are important, but too often they are lacking (see Theme Eight).

• Current species recovery programmes target only a limited number of the most threatened species and less attention on other threatened or poorly known species limits our ability to anticipate and prevent the decline of such species. 
• Threatened species management has not always been well integrated with habitat protection and management on public and private land. Gaps in the current legislation (RMA, Wildlife Act and Native Plants Protection Act) and the way they interact may impede effective action to protect threatened indigenous species and ecosystems.
• There is growing interest in harvesting indigenous species on land for cultural and commercial purposes, but policy and mechanisms to effectively manage this use on a sustainable basis (except for timber production) are lacking (see Theme Seven). 
• The erosion of genetic diversity within indigenous species is occurring as a result of populations of species being reduced and fragmented, and distinct local populations becoming mixed through species transfer and hybridisation (see Theme Four). 

• The diversity, distinctiveness and vulnerability of New Zealand's terrestrial habitats, ecosystems and species, and the processes that threaten them, are not well appreciated by landowners or New Zealanders in general (see Theme Eight). 
• Priority setting for biodiversity conservation management (including threatened species management, habitat protection and restoration, and threat control) is not yet coordinated across the various management agencies that have responsibilities for conserving and sustainably managing biodiversity (see Theme Nine). 

Now, ten years down the track, 236 740 hectares of privately owned native forests have been formally protected through acquisition, covenants, kawenata and Maori reservations; most have been fenced. Much of this land would have otherwise been logged, cleared or further browsed, with a loss of important natural habitats. Recently both funds were broadened in scope to include ecosystems other than forests, such as wetlands, dune environments and tussocklands. The new name - Nature Heritage Fund - reflects this shift (Nga Whenua Rahui retains its name). 

Nga Whenua Rahui is distinct from the Nature Heritage Fund in that it is geared towards Maori landowners retaining tino rangatiratanga (ownership and control) of their land while protecting indigenous forests and other ecosystems. 

A recent example of Nga Whenua Rahui helping to secure a prize piece of New Zealand's biodiversity jigsaw is an area near Whangaruru harbour in Northland. The 167 hectares of mixed virgin and regenerating coastal broadleaf forest feature a large freshwater wetland, a rarity on this coast. The area is home to the North Island brown kiwi and pateke (brown teal), both threatened species. As part of its active kaitiaki role, the managing Whanau Trust hopes to create and sustain a viable breeding population of pateke on the wetland. Nga Whenua Rahui has formally protected the area using a kawenata (or covenant) and has assisted with fencing and clearing pateke landing areas within the wetland. 

Despite the success of Nga Whenua Rahui and the Nature Heritage Fund in securing areas, these funds do not currently cover ongoing pest control to maintain the ecosystems and habitats leaving these costs to landowners where areas are covenanted. 

Action Plan 

Objective 1.1 Protecting indigenous habitats and ecosystems 

a) Enhance the existing network of protected areas to secure a full range20 of remaining indigenous habitats and ecosystems. 

b) Promote and encourage initiatives to protect, maintain and restore habitats and ecosystems that are important for indigenous biodiversity on land outside of protected areas. 

Key players: DoC*, LAs*, MfE, research providers, iwi/hapu21 

b) Add to public conservation lands those habitats and ecosystems important for indigenous biodiversity that are not represented within the existing protected area network or that are at significant risk of irreversible loss or decline, or in situations where public ownership is needed for effective management. 

Key players: DoC*, LAs, iwi/hapu 

c) Encourage and support initiatives to protect and maintain habitats and ecosystems important for indigenous biodiversity on private land using a mixture of mechanisms, recognising the rights, responsibilities and interests of landowners and society, including information, education, voluntary mechanisms, economic incentives, property rights and regulation. 

Key players: MfE*, DoC, LGNZ, LAs, landowners, iwi/hapu 

d) Prepare a national policy statement and related material to provide guidance to local authorities on implementing provisions of the Resource Management Act relevant to conserving and sustainably managing indigenous biodiversity²². 

Key players: MfE*, DoC*, MAF, LGNZ, LAs, iwi/hapu, primary production sector, landowners, NGOs, community groups 

e) Expand and modify existing national funding mechanisms (the Nature Heritage Fund, Nga Whenua Rahui and Queen Elizabeth II National Trust) to meet current demand by landowners and communities where a priority, to protect habitats and ecosystems important for indigenous biodiversity, and to maintain the condition of protected areas through fencing and pest management. 

Key players: DoC*, MfE*, LAs, iwi/hapu, QEII Trust, primary production sector, landowners, NGOs, community groups 

f) Identify and remove legislative and other barriers to local authorities using economic incentives (such as rate relief and financial contributions for costs), and investigate new joint national and regional/local funding mechanisms to encourage and support the protection of ecosystems and habitats important for indigenous biodiversity on private land. 

Key players: MfE*, DIA, LGNZ, LAs, QEII, landowners, iwi/hapu, NGOs 

g) Develop and strengthen information systems to increase access by local authorities, iwi and hapu, sector groups, communities and landowners to indigenous biodiversity survey and ecosystem data and information about indigenous biodiversity management priorities and protection mechanisms. 

Key players: MfE*, DoC, LGNZ, LAs, iwi/hapu, primary production sector, NGOs, community groups 

h) Promote landowner and community awareness of opportunities to conserve and sustainably use indigenous biodiversity, and to protect and maintain habitats and ecosystems of importance to indigenous biodiversity on private land. 

Key players: LAs*, MfE*, DoC*, MAF, TPK, QEII, landowners, iwi/hapu 

i) End unsustainable logging of indigenous forest on Crown-managed land as soon as is practicable. 

Key players: Treasury*, MAF, DoC 

j) Review and phase out indigenous forest logging on Crown-managed land as soon as is practicable. 

Key players: Treasury*, MAF, DoC 

Integrate and use measures in the sustainable management of production lands and urban environments that are sympathetic to indigenous biodiversity. 

Key players: MfE*, DoC, LAs, iwi/hapu, primary production sector, landowners, NGOs, community groups 

b) Encourage and support the protection, maintenance and restoration of indigenous biodiversity in urban environments, recognising the importance of urban initiatives to enhance community awareness of, and involvement in, biodiversity conservation. 

Key players: MfE*, DoC*, research providers, LAs, iwi/hapu, NGOs, community groups 

Prevent, control and manage plant and animal pests, to maintain or improve the condition and health of habitats and ecosystems important for indigenous biodiversity.

Key players: DoC*, MAF*, RCs*, Biosecurity Council, TLAs, landowners, iwi/hapu, community groups 

b) Review and address barriers to agencies integrating an indigenous biodiversity focus in national and regional pest management strategies under the Biosecurity Act (see Theme Five). 

Key players: Biosecurity Council*, RCs 

c) Increase plant and animal pest control and management efforts to levels congruent with national biodiversity goals in areas on protected public conservation lands important for indigenous biodiversity.

Key players: DoC*, iwi/hapu, community groups 

d) Increase research into, and development of, new technologies and techniques to combat existing and emergent threats from plant and animal pests to indigenous biodiversity. 

Key players: DoC*, RCs*, MoRST, FRST, research providers, iwi/hapu, primary production sector, landowners 

Objective 1.4 Terrestrial habitat restoration 

Restore areas of degraded or scarce habitats and ecological processes that are priorities for indigenous biodiversity. 

Key players: DoC*, LAs*, iwi/hapu, research providers, landowners, NGOs, community groups 

b) Develop and implement regionally based restoration strategies identifying priority areas for restoring biodiversity and develop opportunities for collaboration both within and between regions. 

Key players: DoC*, RCs*, TLAs, MfE, research providers, landowners, NGOs, community groups, iwi/hapu 

c) Encourage community understanding of, and involvement in, programmes and activities to protect, maintain and restore indigenous biodiversity through showcase projects and volunteer programmes, and improve access to information, technology, expertise and resources. 

Key players: DoC*, MfE*, LAs*, iwi/hapu, NGOs, community groups, landowners 

d) Promote the use of local indigenous species for restoration projects and programmes. 

Key players: DoC*, LAs, iwi/hapu, NGOs, community groups, landowners 

Objective 1.5 Threatened terrestrial species management 

Enhance populations and distributional ranges of indigenous species and subspecies threatened with extinction and prevent additional indigenous species and ecological communities from becoming threatened.

Key players: DoC*, research providers, iwi/hapu, industry, NGOs, community groups 

b) Review the Wildlife and Native Plant Protection Acts in terms of their effectiveness in protecting threatened indigenous species and ecosystems, taking into account mechanisms under the RMA and other relevant legislation. 

Key players: DoC*, MfE

*Government lead 

¹⁷ Ministry for the Environment, The State of New Zealand's Environment, 1997. 

¹⁸ The terms "protected area network" and "protected area" refer to areas that are protected primarily for nature conservation purposes or to maintain biodiversity values, using a range of legal mechanisms that provide long-term security of either tenure or land use purpose. They may be either publicly or privately owned. 

¹⁹ Actions shown in bold are priority actions (see Part Four). 

²⁰ A "full range" of remaining natural habitats and ecosystems means the same as "comprehensive and representative range", that is, a range that reflects the known diversity of habitats and ecological communities remaining in New Zealand (see Glossary). 

²¹ See key to key players.

²² The Minister for the Environment has appointed a Ministerial Advisory Committee to provide advice on an agreed set of measures for effectively sustaining biodiversity on private land. This work directly picks up on this and other actions in this Strategy. The Committee will lead dialogue with landowners and other interest groups to gain agreement on the mix of measures (including an NPS) that will be used (see www.biowhat.co.nz for information on this process).