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Scope 39
The conservation and sustainable use of the genetic resources of indigenous
species and important
introduced species (see Goal Four); the sharing of benefits from the use of
these genetic resources;
and the maintenance of access to genetic resources from other countries.
New Zealand's contribution to conserving the genetic diversity of introduced
species that are extinct
or threatened in their original habitats.
Desired outcome for 2020
The diversity of genetic resources of important introduced species within New
Zealand is
maintained, effectively supporting our primary production and biotechnology
industries. This is
achieved in ways that do not prevent the conservation of indigenous
biodiversity.
In situ conservation of indigenous genetic resources is complemented by ex situ
means, where necessary.
There is an integrated policy for the management of all genetic material in New
Zealand and for
bioprospecting activities, in accord with agreed international commitments.
There is appropriate
domestic and international access to indigenous genetic material, taking into
account
New Zealand's sovereignty and rights to the benefits from its genetic material,
as well as rights
and obligations under the Treaty of Waitangi.
Populations of introduced species that are threatened or extinct in their
original habitats are
maintained in New Zealand where return to their country of origin is not
feasible or desirable,
using methods that do not pose a threat to indigenous biodiversity.
Current management
Historically, the Government took an active role in conserving introduced
genetic resources such as
grassland plants and trees for timber production. However, in recent years there
has been increased
reliance on market forces and the self-interest of producers to conserve the
genetic diversity of species
that are important for production. Arable farmers, for example, have recognised
the value of ensuring
that traditional varieties of plants such as white clover are kept pure and
collectively levy themselves
to ensure that this occurs. However varieties, strains and breeds for which
there is no longer a significant
market demand and that are not currently being used by breeders and researchers,
are seldom
maintained unless this is paid for by the Government or by voluntary groups.
New Zealand holds some significant collections of introduced genetic material,
mostly plants. These
collections were generally developed with Government funding. Many are
maintained by Crown
Research Institutes (CRIs) and at least partially funded by the Government.
Botanical gardens, zoos,
the New Zealand Rare Breeds Conservation Society, and a number of other breed
societies and
voluntary groups that maintain collections (for example, of old varieties of
fruits), also play a significant
role in conserving genetic resources.
The development of the plant variety rights system has enabled costs of research
and development to
be offset against exclusive temporary rights granted, for example, for the sale
of new varieties. Similarly,
New Zealand's patent system enables protection to be obtained for
biotechnological inventions. The
Patents Act 1953 is currently under review and a major issue is the extent to
which life forms should
be able to be patented.
New Zealand's approach to intellectual property issues is subject to a number of
international treaties,
in particular the WTO-TRIPS40 agreement and the WIPO Paris Agreement41.
New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations FAO42 Commission on Genetic
Resources for
Food and Agriculture, the International Convention for the Protection of New
Varieties of Plants
(UPOV) and the International Association of Plant Breeders (ASSINSEL).
Importation of new genetic resources and breeding programmes is carried out by
private firms, CRIs
and other research institutions. Balancing the economic and environmental risks
and benefits of
bringing genetic material into New Zealand in the form of new organisms (or of
creating such
organisms in New Zealand) occurs within the framework of the Hazardous
Substances and New
Organisms (HSNO) Act 1996 and the Biosecurity Act 1993. Processes and roles for
ERMA (the
Environmental Risk Management Authority) in relation to the importation of new
organisms are
largely developed (see Theme Five).
The hunt for wild species whose genes can yield better crops, new medicines and
other useful products
is called bioprospecting. The genetic resources of our indigenous species may
have the potential to be
developed into commercial products. An increasing amount of bioprospecting in
New Zealand, by
both New Zealand and overseas companies, is occurring in the hope of discovering
material that will
lead to commercially valuable products. Although there are some controls under
the Wildlife Act
1953, the approach to managing bioprospecting in New Zealand is currently ad
hoc.
Many New Zealand zoos, botanical gardens and wild animal parks are involved in
global conservation
and recovery programmes for a limited number of rare and endangered introduced
plants and animals.
In some cases these programmes are vital to the long-term survival of a species,
especially where the
country of origin has a limited focus on conservation. New Zealand also holds
collections, and in
some cases wild populations, of strains of introduced species which are now
threatened or extinct in
their country of origin (for example, the English bumble bee Bombus subterraneus
and strains of deer,
trout and salmon).
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Strategic importance of genetic resources
Genetic resources of both introduced and indigenous species are of vital
importance to all New
Zealanders. A major part of the New Zealand economy (farming, forestry and
horticulture) is
based on introduced species. Other important sectors of the economy (notably
fishing and parts
of tourism) and smaller activities such as mussel farming and part of the
nursery industry, are
based on indigenous species. Genetic resources are also important in New
Zealand's biotechnology
industry which, while currently small, has the potential for substantial growth.
Almost all our land-based production comes from fewer than 50 animal and plant
species. The
small number of species, and the low genetic variability within some of these
species, increases
production but makes land-based production more vulnerable to biological
failures caused, for
example, by pest attack, disease or climatic change.
In many cases the current productivity of the commonly used plant and animal
varieties, strains
and breeds resulting from selective breeding has been made possible by access to
a wider pool of
genetic material.
Access to the gene pool overseas, or the maintenance of the diversity of genetic
material of important
production species within New Zealand, is crucial to manage risks to our economy
and to maintain
the potential for new economic activities in the future. New material needs to
be able to be accessed
to remain competitive in changing markets and in new biologically based
industries.
Some introduced species help to conserve indigenous biodiversity: for example,
blackbirds are
now important dispersers of indigenous plant seeds (and also weed seeds);
banksia and eucalyptus
species are a food source for nectar-feeding birds such as tuis and bellbirds;
gorse provides shelter
for regenerating indigenous vegetation that then replaces it; an introduced
fungus (Phoma
clemetidina) is being used for control of the weed, old man's beard; and
introduced insects
(Sphecophaga spp.) have been released as biological controls for wasps.
Maintaining the genetic
diversity of these useful introduced species and carefully managed access to new
introduced species
will continue to be important.
The genetic diversity of our indigenous species has considerable, but largely
unknown, potential
to contribute to human well-being. Erosion of indigenous genetic diversity may
therefore foreclose
options that might have been beneficial. In the same way, saving rare or
endangered varieties,
strains and breeds of species of introduced plants and animals avoids the loss
of genes globally
that might have future value.
Important questions to consider in relation to conserving genetic material are:
- will it be possible to replace this material if we do not maintain it in New
Zealand?;
- what will it cost to maintain it here and what opportunities would be lost if
we do not
maintain it here?; and
- what would the costs to New Zealand be if we had to obtain it from overseas at
some time in
the future?
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Summary of issues
Erosion of genetic diversity
The loss of genetic diversity within domesticated, cultivated and harvested
species is an increasing
global problem. The low genetic variation of even some widely distributed
varieties of vital production
species makes them vulnerable to unfamiliar diseases and pests and to future
environmental change.
New Zealand's primary production economy depends overwhelmingly on introduced
species. Meeting
the changing market demand for biologically based products requires a
genetically diverse resource
base, so loss of genetic diversity of our economically important species could
have significant economic
effects.
Maintaining the genetic diversity of indigenous species is also vital for their
long-term conservation
and potential for sustainable use.
- Secure maintenance of the genetic resources of diverse species and varieties,
either in living
populations or in collections of seeds, tissues, semen and embryos, can be
costly; often only those species and varieties of high economic priority are conserved in this way. Lack
of resources means
that not all the genetic material in national genebanks is maintained. In some
cases it is not
known how much material in the genebank is still alive.
- The Plant Variety Rights Act 1987 creates an economic incentive to develop new
varieties by
protecting the plant breeder's propagation rights for a limited period of time.
But it does not
cover other biota or other forms of intellectual property, nor are there
comparable measures for
encouraging the conservation and storage of existing species and varieties,
including cultivars
that were developed before the plant variety rights legislation came into
effect.
- Although market mechanisms and intellectual property regimes, including the
patent system,
may provide significant incentives for conserving some genetic resources, they
do not encourage
more comprehensive protection of genetic diversity. Protection of genetic
diversity therefore
requires effective collaboration between the public and private sectors.
- Transferring indigenous genetic material between New Zealand regions for
commercial use (for
example, selling or distributing ornamental plants, or transfer of spat of
cultured shellfish species)
can lead to loss of genetic diversity through hybridisation between closely
related species or
homogenisation of previously distinct local populations.
- Notwithstanding threatened species recovery programmes, there remains a high
risk of loss of
genetic material contained in indigenous species that are still declining
significantly or that may
be subject to some catastrophic event.
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Collecting grass genes
The Margot Forde Germplasm Centre in Palmerston North is one of New Zealand's
most
important collections of introduced biodiversity. Maintained by AgResearch (New
Zealand Pastoral
Agriculture Research Institute), the Centre is our national genebank of a wide
range of grassland
plants, mostly grasses and legumes. It provides the basis for grassland breeding
and research in
New Zealand, and is also our "insurance" against future environmental
change.
The collection was started in the 1930s, when we first recognised the value of
conserving genetic
diversity for plant breeding. The Centre now has over 60 000 seed samples that
are carefully
maintained at a low temperature and humidity to prolong their life. The seeds
represent more
than 1500 species and 58 plant families. These include wild relatives of many
useful species,
cultivars developed both overseas and in New Zealand, as well as collections of
native grass species.
Throughout the Centre's history, expeditions have been made to areas such as
southwest Europe,
the Caucasus region, and North and South America, to collect plant material.
The Centre is important internationally and is involved in exchanges with other
countries and
provision of genetic resources for research overseas. Some of its collections
have worldwide
significance, for example its 18,000 samples of white clover are a resource for
agriculture in
temperate regions everywhere.
Funding for the Centre has waxed and waned over the years. However, now it is
recognised as a
collection of national importance and is funded on a relatively long-term basis.
Such funding can
be likened to the premium paid on the insurance policy for a sustainable
grassland industry for
New Zealand. |
Balancing important introduced species against indigenous biodiversity
The need to conserve the genetic diversity of important introduced species must
be balanced against
the need to control introduced pest species (see Themes One,
Two and Five).
- Some important introduced species may also threaten indigenous biodiversity
(for example,
weediness of some crop, pasture and tree species, and damage to indigenous
ecosystems by
livestock); to avoid conflicts important introduced species may need to be moved
to locations
where they do not compromise priorities for conserving indigenous biodiversity.
Maintaining access to genetic resources
To maintain the genetic diversity of important introduced species, breeds and
varieties in New Zealand,
access to genetic material overseas needs to be maintained (see Theme Ten).
- Such access may not always be available due to other countries' policies or
laws, and requires
negotiation of multilateral or bilateral reciprocal access arrangements.
- In negotiating access agreements to genetic resources, New Zealand must
recognise the sovereign
rights of countries over their natural resources, and take into account the
interests of indigenous
and local communities in relation to the identification of, access to and
commercial benefits
from, these resources.
- Under the Convention on Biological Diversity New Zealand is required to
facilitate access to its
own genetic resources for environmentally sound purposes by other Convention
parties, subject
to New Zealand's own sovereignty rights.
- The approach that New Zealand takes for providing access to, and approving use
of, its indigenous
genetic resources may have important implications for reciprocal access to the
indigenous genetic
resources of other countries.
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Hanging on to harakeke
Harakeke or New Zealand flax is one of our most widely used native plants. Wild
varieties were
grown and harvested by both Maori and Pakeha to produce a range of products,
including clothing,
kete (baskets), mats, fishing nets and rope. With changing economies and the
rise of petroleumbased
products, the demand for flax products declined. However, harakeke remained
important
to Maori for commercial and cultural purposes, and these uses have grown over
the last few
decades.
Scientists distinguished just two species of flax (genus Phormium). However,
Maori have recognised
and named many different types of harakeke based on leaf and fibre
characteristics. Different
types of harakeke were selected and cultivated for particular purposes, and
around 200 names for
these have been recorded. Individual weavers maintained plantings of their
favourite selections
and at a time when use of harakeke seemed to be in decline, a few private
collections of traditional
harakeke varieties were made. Many of these varieties have now disappeared from
their place of
origin.
In 1988 the National New Zealand Flax Collection was established, most of which
was provided
from a large private collection gifted to the Crown. The national collection has
over 90 different
types of harakeke from all around New Zealand and is managed by Manaaki Whenua (Landcare
Research) at two main sites, with partial collections at other sites. Harakeke
from the collection is
distributed to marae, weavers, schools and other groups involved in restoration
projects with the
aim of maintaining the diversity of plants for weaving. |
Commercial use and bioprospecting of indigenous genetic resources
Using the genetic resources of indigenous species for commercial benefit raises
ecological, commercial,
cultural and ethical issues, as well as issues of access to genetic resources
and how benefits from their
use are shared.
- Bioprospecting and propagation activities, if not carefully managed, can erode
the genetic diversity
of indigenous biodiversity.
- The interests and rights of Maori as Treaty partners in relation to indigenous
genetic resources
need to be identified and addressed in the development of policy relating to
bioprospecting. This
includes issues raised in the indigenous flora and fauna claim to the Waitangi
Tribunal (Wai 262)
and the contribution of matauranga Maori to identifying and commercially
developing these
resources.
- The extent to which New Zealand's existing intellectual property rights
systems can be applied to
protect Maori cultural and intellectual property, and issues relating to the
patenting of lifeforms,
need to be taken into account in the future development of New Zealand's
intellectual property
rights laws.
- Current piecemeal approaches to managing bioprospecting are no longer adequate
in the face of
increasing commercial activity. Various ad hoc approaches to the licensing of
bioprospecting
have been developed under the Wildlife Act 1953, but have little applicability
to the marine
environment.
- There is a need for a consistent national framework to determine and manage
access to, and
commercial use of, indigenous genetic resources in line with Article 15 of the
Convention on
Biological Diversity, and to provide certainty for New Zealand and overseas
companies and research
institutions.
- There is also a need for a framework to secure New Zealand's interests in
indigenous genetic
resources and to appropriately distribute the benefits from the commercial use
of these resources;
this could include channelling a portion of these benefits into the conservation
of indigenous
biodiversity.
Conserving threatened introduced plants and animals
- New Zealand has become a refuge for some introduced species at risk in other
parts of the world,
and these are present both in captive management and wild populations. However,
where wild
populations of these species threaten indigenous biodiversity, the feasibility
of repatriating the
species to their place of origin or conserving the genetic material in some
other way needs to be
considered.
- The risk to indigenous biodiversity posed by wild populations of introduced
species should be a
primary consideration in such decisions.
- The risk of repatriated species introducing new pests and diseases to the
country they are being
returned to also needs to be considered.
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Parma wallaby - pest or part of our heritage?
The parma wallaby (also known as the white-throated or small brown wallaby) is
one of five
wallaby species established in New Zealand. It is found only on Kawau Island in
the Hauraki
Gulf, where it was released in about 1870 by Sir George Grey. Although the parma
wallaby is rare
in its natural habitat in northern New South Wales, Australia, it is common on
Kawau.
However, wallabies are a pest on Kawau. They browse native vegetation and may
have caused
the local extinction of some native plant species that are found on nearby
wallaby-free islands.
They also cause damage in gardens on the island, including the historic Mansion
House garden.
DoC and landowners currently control the parma wallaby population to keep it
from getting
too large.
Yet parma wallaby have not always been treated as pests on Kawau Island. In 1961
the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) requested they be
protected because
of concerns about their possible extinction in Australia. For 15 years parma
were protected and
many were captured alive from Kawau to supply zoos and to establish breeding
colonies in other
parts of the world. In 1984, with their security in Australia confirmed, the ban
on killing parma
on Kawau was lifted.
Today the parma wallaby is not threatened in its native habitat and is also
secure in zoos and
collections elsewhere. From the perspective of conserving biodiversity, there is
therefore no need
to conserve parma on Kawau Island, although there may be cultural and historical
reasons for
doing so. |
Action plan43
Objective 4.1 Conservation of New Zealand's genetic resources
Conserve the diversity of New Zealand's genetic resources so as to maintain
their current and
potential benefits to New Zealanders.
Actions:
a) Develop a collaborative strategy to manage New Zealand's genetic resources
(from both
introduced and indigenous species), focusing on:
- effective cooperation between Government, industry, research institutions and
managers
of collections of genetic resources;
- iclearly assigning responsibilities for maintaining New Zealand's genetic
resources; and
- managing information about collections of genetic resources.
Key players: Not yet assigned*, MAF, MoRST, FRST, DoC, research providers,
primary production
industry associations, NZ Biotechnology Assn, NZ Plant Breeding and Research
Assn, NZ Rare
Breeds Conservation Society, other breed societies, zoos, ARAZPA, significant
private collections44
b) Identify significant areas of risk in the management of the genetic resources
of New Zealand's
introduced species, including information gaps, and recommend how these risks
can be
effectively managed.
Key players: Not yet assigned*, MAF, research providers, primary production
industry associations,
NZ Biotechnology Ass, NZ Plant Breeding and Research Assn, NZ Rare Breeds
Conservation
Society, breed societies, significant private collections, zoos
c) Identify significant areas of risk in managing genetic resources of New
Zealand's indigenous
species that are threatened or in decline (with reference to threatened species
recovery
programmes), and recommend how these risks can be reduced, for example through
germplasm banks.
Key players: DoC*, research providers, iwi/hapu
Objective 4.2 Access to genetic material from other countries
Maintain access by New Zealanders to genetic material from overseas, and
participate in
international frameworks relating to access to genetic resources and related
knowledge and
technology.
Actions:
a) Implement the HSNO Act to ensure ongoing access by New Zealand to genetic
material from
overseas, while safeguarding indigenous biodiversity and human health.Key players: ERMANZ*, MoC, MAF, MfE, industry associations, iwi/hapu
b) Review arrangements for collecting genetic resources overseas, by New Zealand
individuals,
companies and research institutions, and conclude agreements as appropriate45.
Key players: Not yet assigned*, MAF, MoRST, MFAT, research providers, iwi/hapu
c) Continue to participate in renegotiating the International Undertaking on
Plant Genetic Resources,
and participate in relevant future multilateral or bilateral agreements for
access to genetic resources
for food and agriculture.
Key players: MAF*, MoC, DoC, MFAT, MoRST, iwi/hapu, industry associations
d) Participate in multilateral and bilateral processes relating to access to
genetic resources (not limited
to genetic resources for food or agriculture) within the Convention on
Biological Diversity
framework.
Key players: MoC*, MAF, MFAT, TPK, MoRST, iwi/hapu
e) Continue to develop cooperative research programmes and share information
about genetic
resources between New Zealand institutions, institutions in other countries, and
international
bodies.
Key players: To be assigned*, MAF, MoRST, FRST, research providers, iwi/hapu, NZ
Rare Breeds
Conservation Society, breed societies, zoos, ARAZPA, significant private
collections
Objective 4.3 Bioprospecting in New Zealand
Develop an integrated policy and legislative framework for managing
bioprospecting in New
Zealand, including arrangements for sharing benefits from the use of genetic
resources, which are
consistent with international commitments.
Actions:
a) Develop policy on access to, and the use of, New Zealand's indigenous genetic
resources and the
sharing of benefits from their use, taking into account Maori interest in these
resources (see
Theme Seven) and providing as much certainty as possible for all parties.Key players: DoC*, MoC, TPK, MoRST, NZ Biotechnology Assn, iwi/hapu, research
providers
b) Review existing controls and legislation regulating the bioprospecting of
indigenous genetic
resources, with a view to developing a more integrated framework for managing
bioprospecting
and distributing its benefits46.
Key players: DoC*, MoC, TPK, Mfish, MAF, MfE, LGNZ, iwi/hapu
Objective 4.4 Matauranga Maori and use of genetic resources
Ensure that the use of matauranga Maori (traditional knowledge) in the
identification and
commercial use and development of intellectual rights to indigenous genetic
resources occurs only
with the consent of the holders of that knowledge, and that they share in any
subsequent benefits
(see Theme Seven).
Actions:
a) Address, and seek to resolve, Treaty of Waitangi claims to ownership of
biological resources,
including indigenous genetic resources.Key players: TPK*, DoC, MfE, MAF, MoC, MoRST, FRST, iwi/hapu, research providers
b) Develop agreements that safeguard the use of matauranga Maori in the
identification, use and
development of intellectual rights to indigenous genetic resources, and ensure
appropriate sharing
of resultant benefits.
Key players: TPK*, MoC, iwi/hapu
c) Provide for Maori interests in indigenous genetic resources, and concerns
relating to the patenting
of lifeforms, to be taken into account during the current review of the Patents
Act 1953.
Key players: MoC*, DoC, TPK, iwi/hapu
Objective 4.5 Conservation of threatened introduced species
Assist with international efforts to conserve threatened introduced plants and
animals in New
Zealand, provided that this does not conflict with conserving indigenous
biodiversity.
Actions:
a) Support the in situ conservation of threatened introduced species by
returning them, where possible
and environmentally desirable, to their place of origin.Key players: Not yet assigned*, DoC, MAF, ARAZPA
b) Maintain small populations of threatened introduced species in facilities or
clearly defined areas
where their presence will not pose a threat to indigenous species, where
reintroduction to their
country of origin is not feasible or is undesirable because of the risk of
introducing pests or
diseases.
Key players: Not yet assigned*, DoC, ARAZPA, research providers, iwi/hapu
*Government lead
39 Some of the issues within the scope of this theme are also addressed in other
themes, for example conserving the genetic
diversity of indigenous species is addressed through conserving species in their
natural habitats and ecosystems (see
Themes One, Two and Three).
40 World Trade Organisation Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights.
41 World Intellectual Property Organisation: Agreement for the Protection of
Industrial Property.
42 Food and Agriculture Organisation.
43 Actions shown in bold are priority actions (see Part Four).
44 See key
to key players.
45 This action depends on the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (IUOGRFA) being finalised.
46 This action will need to be aligned with the International Undertaking on
Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
(IUPGRFA). |
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